African American’s, Latino’s and Caucasians each has a unique style of worship that comes out of their cultural values. In their books, The Spirituals and the Blues and African American Christian Worship by James Cone and Melva Costen respectively, describe African American churches and worship. While Justo González in his books Santa Biblia and Mañana looks at Latino’s history and theology. Analysis of the worship styles displayed in these works exposes some of the cultural values of the group. The objective of this work is to summarize the arguments made in each book, analyze the cultural patterns of each group noting similarities and differences and reflecting on my own cultural values, learning and relational growth.
The Spirituals and the Blues by James Cone looks specifically at African American songs. He argued that music acted as a unifying force for the community. Cone argued that because of the holistic approach taken by African American’s in not separating the sacred from the secular, blues music and the spirituals compliment each other. This music expressed the emotional state of African Americans living under slavery. They longed for divine liberation from their slavery, identifying with the Jews in Exodus. Because of their bondage, family and marriage did not have legal bonding, nor was scripture philosophically analyzed or read, instead faith was on an experiential basis. He emphasizes the separation between African Americans and Caucasians with regard to the relationship between human rights and scripture, even arguing the God of white music is not the same God that is in black music.
African American Christian Worship by Melva Costen looks at the development of African American churches or what she called the “invisible institute”. Because of laws limiting the ability of African’s to organize, African slaves formed invisible institutes, or undercover organizations in which they were able to worship God in their own way. Often services had a lot of emotion in them, from the crowd in its response and from the speaker in the message. Support for the message was shown through nonverbal signals like pointing and waving. The whole service was devoted to worship through word and action. Kinship was a key component of the services, people coming together and fellowshipping with each other made it something people looked forward to each time. Like Cone, she emphasized that African slaves did not have a predetermined theology but operated mostly from experience.
Santa Biblia by Justo González shows how Latinos interpret scripture from the perspective of the marginalized. He tells of the marginalization of Latinos through poverty, being of a mixed race, and exiles or aliens in the United States. Latinos, therefore, identify with the marginalized characters in scripture. He, therefore, emphasizes a stand of solidarity with the oppressed and marginalized in the world.
Mañana by Justo González looks more at the theology in Latino Christianity. He argues that the purpose of theology is to discover the purpose of God. He argues that the best way to do this is through cataphatic discourse and recognizing the historic viewpoints of the church fathers. He argues for a holistic approach without the dualism of soul and body therein recognizing the goodness of creation. He argued that the creation started in the beginning and continues in sustaining the existence of created matter. They see God as dynamically involved in the affairs of man but do not hold that God is impassible, infinite and omnipotent. They hold that the trinity is to be an example for the church to live in community with one another, mutually giving and sharing that all might become one. Faith is something that we are part of and something that we carry out through a kingdom orientation, continually pushing toward perfection.
These worship styles and theologies have been shaped by the cultural values of each group. Both Latino’s and African’s share a feminine culture, a holistic worldview, and a collectivistic mindset. African American’s however tend to have more of an individualist focus than Latino’s, they are spontaneous, emotional and indirect communicators, and are past oriented. Latinos, on the other hand, are family and people oriented which is incorporated into their task orientation and are present oriented. These are some of the major cultural values that can be drawn from the texts; many more do exist that are not treated directly in this work.
Feminine culture was expressed in many ways in African American worship, including that African slaves did not see themselves as different from their masters. Their theology saw no justification for slavery. For them, all men were created equal endowed by their creator with certain inalienable rights regardless of color. They confused freedom in God with freedom from any authority in the egalitarian stance that they took to the issue of slavery. Caucasian interpretations of Romans 13:1-7 and 1 Peter 2:13-21 were distortions of scripture. Instead of bearing “the pain of unjust suffering because they are conscious of God” 1 Peter 2:19b (NIV) they escaped through the underground railroad to the North. The egalitarianism and concern to stand up for the rights of the oppressed, themselves, prompted them not only to escape but to underperform in their work for their masters.
Similarly, feminine culture was expressed through Latino Christianity through their concern for the marginalized in the world. Latinos identify with the poor, the exile, and the mixed raced outcasts of society. They are therefore compassionate to those who have become marginalized in society. They also favor egalitarianism but not to the extent of removing all authority as was seen in African American egalitarianism. Some of this is due to the Catholic roots in Latino culture with the hierarchical system of the Catholic Church. Nevertheless, there is a mutual respect that they have for each other. They are willing to listen to Caucasian theologians throughout history as well as evaluate from their own perspectives. González argued that Christian theology is like a landscape in which everyone looks upon from varying perspectives, each of which provides a unique and equal view to the truth. They are willing to enter into discussion about the truths in scripture and are respectful of others views.
African American Christians do not separate between the sacred and profane but hold to a holistic worldview. In Cone’s treatment of the spirituals and the blues, he argued that they compliment each other. The blues from a more secular perspective and the spirituals from the Christian perspective both come together to show the emotional distress and crying out of African slaves. Cone argued that aspects of the spirituals were references to worldly things. For instance, in certain spirituals home for them is the North or Africa where they have freedom in the world. He also connects chariots and trains to the Underground Railroad bringing fugitive slaves to the North. African slaves in many ways saw themselves as the Israelites in the Exodus looking for a literal promised land on the earth rather than a kingdom that is not of this world.
Latinos also deny dualisms in favor of a holistic approach to the world. They see the goodness of all things. A case in point of this is their views of the incarnation. They deny the Gnostic view that the flesh is evil and the Platonist divide of soul and flesh to assert that Jesus was wholly God and wholly man. They believe that God became man and dwelt among us, particularly among the marginalized and oppressed. They see this as something to be imitated and are lead, through their kingdom orientation, toward living in this world in such a way that their faith and hope might be lived out.
Collectivism and group orientation is also a major aspect of African American Christian worship. Each of them comes from a shared struggle of trying to survive in a Caucasian dominated society. The church acted as a unifying force for African Americans to come together for fellowship, hope and to organize themselves. Baptisms, particularly baptisms by immersion, were major events in the African American community, and they would travel from miles around to witness one. All of them shared in a kinship that formed based on their mutual interdependence and shared experience. As a group they would worship together, even their shouting became a ritualized group activity.
Latinos also were very collectivistic. Family is particularly important for Latinos. This makes it incredibly difficult for Latinos to leave their home countries to come to the United States and when they do get to the United States, why their church family is so important to them. As Latinos, they have a shared history of living on the margins that bonds them together as a community. Latinos look at the doctrine of the Trinity as an example for the church to follow. As the Father, Son and Spirit share in their being so to the church should become one, sharing with one another. The best theology they argue is a communal enterprise made up of everyone’s views. They are therefore very ecumenical and accepting of other Christians.
There are certain traits that are more characteristic of African Americans that make them a unique group. While they are collectivists, they are more individualistic than were Latinos. Much of this is due to their history. Marriages at the time were not legally binding and it was common for spouses to be broken up and parents from their children through the slave trade. While others in the community might be there for them in these times, they were forced to accept a level of individualism apart from blood relatives. Individualism is also seen through the use of the Underground Railroad. Individuals who thought that they would rather risk dying than live in bondage tried to escape through the Underground Railroad abandoning the community in their own pursuit of freedom in the North.
African American’s are also very spontaneous and emotional communicators. This is done particularly through songs, shouting during the services, and preaching. In the spirituals, blues and gospel songs the singer expressed their feelings and emotions. They expressed what they were going through and how they were suffering. These songs were a release for the singers from the problems they were going through. The shouting also is the outpouring of emotion from African American worshipers. Stating whatever is on their mind and responding to the presenter is a form of expression. These emotions from the singers and congregations were often personal, and displayed a willingness to expose vulnerabilities through these forms of communication. Preachers through their style try to elicit emotion from their audience, carefully selecting words and tones, repeating certain phrases, all were used to create a particular atmosphere in the church. Another aspect of their communication is the indirectness of it, often communicating through metaphor. In the days of slavery, trains and chariots were symbolic for the Underground Railroad, and home often meant the North or Africa. These indirect forms of communication kept slave owners in the dark about what was taking place, but allowed African Americans to communicate with each other through coded songs. A high level of context was therefore required to understand fully African Americans communication.
African Americans are also very past oriented. They are very aware of the bondage of their ancestors and cannot bring themselves to move beyond it. A resentment of Caucasians exists in Cone’s work to such an extent he does not believe Caucasians and Africans are serving the same God and that Caucasians have distorted scripture. They often look for areas in which Caucasians marginalize them and to a certain degree embellish it. This perceived persecution is what unifies them as a community. History, to a degree, is circular for the African American, having repeated patterns of persecution.
Latinos are particularly family and person oriented. It is particularly difficult for Latinos to leave their home countries because of the closeness they have to family and friends. Family for Latinos extends to distant relatives that are treated like immediate family. Therefore, when Latinos do get to the United States church families are particularly important. Being for others is particularly important to Latinos as they seek to stand in solidarity with the marginalized of the world. Standing with the marginalized is the task that Latinos seek to accomplish. In this, they are very task oriented. Through their kingdom orientation they seek to live out their faith in the here and not yet of the kingdom of God. They are dedicated to completing the tasks that God has called them to do, and work hard to see them accomplished.
This way of seeing the kingdom of God also makes them present oriented. While avoiding triumphalism they seek to make the most of what they have in the establishment of the kingdom of God here and now. They believe that following the death and resurrection of Christ the resurrection has already begun. It is not a future resurrection, as many Caucasians believe, but a resurrection that is currently taking place. All of these things point to an immediacy of particular elements of eschatology that comes out of their present time orientation. The sovereignty of God also plays a factor in their present orientation. While they do not hold to an impassible, infinite, omnipotent God, they do believe that God’s creation continues through His sustaining of the world. Because God is in control, tomorrow will take care of itself, there is no need to worry about tomorrows problems today.
How then do these cultural perspectives on scripture compare with the Caucasian Christian church of which I am a participant? Caucasian Christianity in the United States often have a dualistic understanding of Christianity separating the sacred from the profane. There are traditions like the Neo-Calvinist tradition that takes a more holistic approach, finding no separation between body and soul or sacred and profane. From this tradition, I went through undergrad and was shaped in my Christian views. Therefore, Caucasian Christianity is divided on many issues and it is difficult to classify the whole into any particular category. Which tradition within Caucasian Christianity one comes from contributes to which cultural trait they hold on this issue and many others.
Most Caucasian Christians are very task oriented. Church is done like a task and not experienced. Many learn how to go through the motions of church. Children in particular learn to be seen and not heard when they go to church. Any noise is disrespectful and embarrassing for the noisemaker and the family. Tradition is what is important in the Caucasian church. The Caucasian church also takes on the task to spread its views of scripture to the heathen in the rest of the world. This task is accomplished through systems and strategies designed to address different elements of “evangelism”. While I fall under task orientation, I place my trust in God and not human made systems.
I tend to have a moderate level of context. I am moderately aware of what is going on in the Middle East, South Asia, North East Africa and Europe in terms of their politics and culture. However, the Caucasian church also tends to be very low context. They focus only on what is going on in their small localities and do not care about other countries and cultures. When missionaries come to give updates they do not care as much about what is going on in the country but rather whether their money is being put to good use. The question is how many souls have this missionary saved not questions about how God is at work. This also illustrates the achievement focus of the Caucasian church. While I have an achievement focus, I do not see it as what I have achieved but what God has achieved through me.
The Caucasian church is also time oriented. If church goes longer than the allotted amount of time people are not happy about it. Church is supposed to start at a particular time and end at a particular time. They follow a strict monochromic time system as if worship can only happen within certain time constraints and therefore must be limited to a specific time span. In the bulletins are specific schedules to keep leaving no room for a movement of the spirit to step outside of these structures. In part because I have lived in monochromic time my whole life, and the fact that I live in an entertainment era it is difficult for me to sit for a long time in any one place, however, I am trying to change to be more adaptable to the movement of the spirit.
While it will vary from tradition to tradition, most Caucasian Christians are future oriented looking towards to the triumphal reign of Christ. Neo-Calvinists take a past, present and future approach. They look to the past at the workings of God throughout history, to the present for His workings now in the restoration of the world and to the future for the final restoration to occur. This goes with the holistic approach taken by Neo-Calvinists arguing that the past, present and future are so interrelated that they compliment each other. I often, like the African Americans tend to dwell in the past and project it upon the present. For instance, in United States history, I look at the Tuskegee syphilis study and the many other similar studies going on during the time, the Japanese concentration camps, Hiroshima and Guantanamo Bay as indicators of what the United States really thinks about the right to life and liberty. Unjust wars like the Revolutionary War, the Spanish American war and the current occupations of Iraq and Afghanistan only further confirm the wretchedness of the culture and the government that the culture has bred. Militarism, materialism and hypocrisy are fundamental to the United States internationally and domestically. The pure pride and patriotism of the people of the United States is even extended into the language. The people who live in the United States call themselves “Americans”, claiming for themselves alone, a title that could belong to the entire Western Hemisphere. What makes the people of the United States more American than the Canadians, Mexicans, Cubans, or Chileans that they can claim the title to themselves? Do not they also belong to North, Central and South America and are therefore American?
Regardless of these aspects of United States culture, the goodness of creation still extends into United States culture in some capacity. While I struggle to see it, God has placed me within this culture for a reason and undoubtedly, I have become part of the culture. It is not necessarily bad to be individualistic or time oriented but rather it is how these traits are used. The God who is sovereign over all things has allowed these traits to be used in the way that they have, and though I might not understand it, God can use it for His purposes.
Learning it and actually applying and living by it are two different things. To a certain degree it becomes more of an intellectual exercise rather than a life changing experience. I have especially tried to avoid ad homonym arguments being respectful of their person, culture and family. However, the way I perceive things is not always the way that they perceive it or the way that it actually occurs. Often times my time orientation and perceptions within it is perceived as coldness by those who are event oriented. For instance, when I passed a fellow Caucasian in the hall and they gave greeting, I give greeting in return and continue on my way not perceiving it as an attempt for further communication. What I perceive from my vantage point as a simple friendly greeting is not the same as what they perceived from their vantage point, a call to further communication. The problem becomes when I come across someone how do I know which cultural values they hold. There is not a sign that accompanies people telling others what cultural values that they hold. Ethnicity is not always an indicator, as was shown in the example.
Cone and Costen through their treatment of African American Christianity and González through his treatment of Latino Christianity paint a picture of each group’s cultural perspectives on scripture. African Americans and Latinos have taken the scripture and contextualized it to their particular culture and situation. Through identification with different biblical characters and stories they see hope amidst the despair and marginalization. While Caucasians often look at scripture from a perspective of affluence, Latinos and African Americans provide a unique view from the perspective of the marginalized. Each perspective has something to contribute to Christianity. At the same time, each comes at scripture from a particular bias that clouds their reading of scripture. Culture has a way of highlighting certain portions of scripture and distorting others as was seen from the Caucasians and African Americans during the time of slavery with regard to slave rights and authority. Therefore, cultural values act as both a facilitator and inhibitor of ones reading of scripture. Latinos and African Americans have so much to contribute to Christianity. An ecumenical approach, taking into account all of the different cultural vantage points is needed now more than ever. There is so much to learn from each other to allow our differences to divide us.
Bibliography
Cone, James H. The Spirituals and the Blues. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 2008.
Costen, Melva W. African American Christian Worship, 2nd ed. Nashville Tennessee: Abingdon Press, 2007.
González, Justo. Santa Biblia: The Bible Through Hispanic Eyes. Nashville Tennessee: Abingdon Press, 1996.
González, Justo. Mañana: Christian Theology from a Hispanic Perspective. Nashville Tennessee: Abingdon Press, 1990.
Gudykunst, William B. Bridging Differences: Effective Intergroup Communications, 4th ed. Thousand Oaks California: Sage Publications Inc, 2004.
Jandt, Fred E. An Introduction to Intercultural Communications: Identities in a Global Context, 6th ed. Los Angeles California: Sage Publications Inc, 2010.
Lingenfelter, Sherwood, and Marvin Mayers. Ministering Cross Culturally: An Incarnational Model for Personal Relationships, 2nd ed. Grand Rapids Michigan: Baker Academic, 2003.
