Heart of Worship, Rejoicing Amidst the Horror of Marginalization

            It was September 11, 2011, the ten year anniversary of the attack on the World Trade Center. On this historic date, I would also be attending a historic church, Pilgrim Baptist, in the first day of its revival services. Leading the revival was Reverend Ian Bethel. This is the story of my interaction with this African American church service, noting the areas of cultural similarities and differences.

            I stood outside my building at ten minutes to nine, dressed in my Sunday’s best, a black suit, a white button down shirt and tie with black dress pants and black dress shoes, waiting for the rest of the group to arrive. I did not know what to expect of the day ahead of me. We were going to be traveling into Saint Paul to attend Pilgrim Baptist Church. As a country boy, unfamiliar with the area, I did not know if I would have to fight traffic and/ or watch for armed gunmen and gangs on the sides of the streets.  I would be taking this journey with Charles, his wife, Britney, Rahul and his friend, Rebecca. We took two vehicles to the church, Charles, Britney, and I took one, while Rahul and Rebecca took another. As we approached the church, the conditions of the infrastructure worsened. The building itself, while having some age to it which was to be expected given it was established in 1863 by escaped slaves[1], however,  it did appear to have a newer addition added to it recently. Somewhat symbolic of the service that we were about to partake in. My vehicle arrived first to the church and as we waited outside for the other vehicle to arrive, other churchgoers greeted us. It was a bit surprising that African Americans would greet a Caucasian man, having read James H Cone’s book The Spiritual and the Blues, which portrays a high level of animosity and resentment that African Americans have toward Caucasians[2]. However, none of that was at Pilgrim Baptist church, there were even a few Caucasians that attended the church regularly, one of which that sang in the choir.  I saw there greetings as genuine, without any ill feelings towards us. We were worshippers of God with them, not serving another God, as Cone suggests, but in communion with them.

I was a bit concerned that I would be overdressed and stand out like a sore thumb. I felt this way for two main reasons first the other members of my group were only dressed semi-formally and second African Americans are typically poor, which might not allow them to have such clothing. There was a mix in clothing amidst attendees of the church. Many women had on dresses and fancy hats while many men had suits and/or button down shirts.  A smaller number did have on things like Viking jerseys or a tee shirt and other less formal clothing.  In this way, they were very similar to the clothing mix present in my home church. I was instead overdressed physically which helped be to understand why African American pastors have to wipe sweat from their foreheads. I always thought it was because they really got into their message and that might be some of the reason. The other part is that it was warm in the church. Many of the women were fanning themselves; some men had handkerchiefs to wipe sweat from their face. While I was not sweating, I did get a little light headed during the service. It was a distant cry from the air-conditioned sanctuary of my home church. The focus of my mind during part of the service was on my own well-being rather than worshipping God or noticing what was going on around me.

At 9:45 a.m., the church service began and to my surprise, a woman was leading the service. It is not that I am against women leading church services or speaking in church, it is more that every church I have ever attended a man has led the service. It showed a level of progressivity and liberalization for that church to take the step of allowing a woman to lead the service. Especially while so many other churches are dragging their feet to a degree in this regard, holding to a literal interpretation of 1 Corinthians 14:34. On this account, the church displayed an egalitarian stance by allowing a woman a place of leadership. She opened the service with a responsive call to worship. Again having experienced this in other churches, I was familiar with the process and it did not catch me off guard. In the call to worship was an emphasis on unity, an appropriate enough theme given the fact that it was the first day of a revival and the fact that it was on an anniversary of a traumatic event in United States history. This unity is not only in a common faith but also in a common purpose and goal of fulfilling the Great Commission, as they understand it. Therefore, there seems to be a collectivism cultural trait embedded in the selection of the verses for the call to worship. Collectivism is the cultural trait that seeks to incorporate the totality of the people through mutual interdependence, oneness of unity and loss of self. Community played an essential role in the church service making it one of the fundamental values for the church.  

Following the Call to Worship was prayer. In this prayer is displayed a dependence on God, thanksgiving to God, praise of God, petitioning God to help those who are hurting remembering especially those who died in the World Trade Center. During the prayer, congregational members would respond and interact with the speaker with a variety of utterances. They were active participants within the church service rather than just onlookers as is often the case in Caucasian churches. Some congregation members would use nonverbal signals like pointing at the speaker to show support. One phrase in the prayer that caught my attention was the use of Mathew 5:37 “but let your yes be yes and your no be no” (NKJV). Amidst all the struggles that the slaves endured, was the struggle of masters lying to them. During the service, some people said, “tell the truth” all of which illustrates the importance of honesty in African American culture.

Following the prayer was the singing of hymns.  Hymns were the only thing sung in my home church, and I have enjoyed listening to white gospel singers like the Gaither Vocal Band and the Cathedrals, so I was comfortable with the hymns. The first one, “Glory be to the Father”, I even knew. The second hymn “Revive us Again”, I was not familiar with but like all hymns it does not take very long to get the harmony. During this hymn, the leader would state the verse and than the congregation would sing it. I would imagine very similar to the time when many African Americans could not read and the leader said the words and the congregation would sing it. This allows the entire community to participate in the church service. There is also a call and response component to this as well. All of which shows the importance of their ethnic roots and ways in which they have sought to incorporate their history into the service. They therefore have in part a past orientation. Past orientation is the cultural trait that seeks to preserve the history and traditions through incorporation of them in the present. While Pilgrim seeks to preserve its rich heritage there are ways in which they have sought to progress and adapt to a changing world.

In one of the verses of “Revive Us Again”, it talks the cleansing of every stain. Indirectly this might have a greater meaning to them, as many of them were cleaners in the days of slavery and some I would imagine still are in hotels, upper class homes or at the very least their own homes.  Stains are next to impossible to remove, as they know from experience. The God who cleanses the stains in the lives of His elect had to pay the ultimate price, His own life. Incorporation and identification with the teachings was something that was very important throughout the service and shows pragmatic influences within the culture. Pragmatism is the belief that things should be simple, straightforward, and practical; there should be a clearly defined problem and solution without the need for intense analysis. 

There was then what was listed as a praise period. Although the specific song is not listed in the bulletin, they sang “Because of Who You Are”.  This song speaks of praising and worshipping God because of who He is; in essence, because of His status, reverence is required. This therefore plays a role in the unique dynamic of power distance or the respect given to those in authority in the African American church. While they seek to be egalitarian seeing God as a friend they also revere Him because of His stature. Along side the song leader, was a woman who was signing the words to the song. Following this song, the children came up for what they called a ‘Fine Arts Ministry’ and they signed the song “Praise on the Inside”. The incorporation of bodily movements in the worshiping of God was something that was new to me and is expressive of their holistic approach, worshipping God through word and action. Holism is the belief that there is unity between things, as opposed to a dualistic view that separates things into spheres like flesh and spiritual.  The children had painted their faces white, which I assumed is a traditional African custom. Therefore, there was an appreciation of there African heritage and history.  The song itself speaks of emotions that they cannot keep to themselves. Emotions were free flowing during the service from the congregation and speakers; therefore, the song seems to be representative of African American worship and the emotional nature of their lives and communication.

They then had a time for acknowledgement of visitors. During this time, they had all the visitors stand. As we stood, the congregation applauded. We were given visitor information forms to fill out. It was nothing out of the ordinary for a smaller church to have a greater level of community and objective of expanding while serving the needs of the congregation. While perhaps in a Caucasian church, they might not make them stand up but might have some level of acknowledgement, greeting, and information gathering that would occur.

The church choir made up of mostly African American men and women with one Caucasian woman began to sing. The chorus of the song was particularly identifiable for the African American community. “I’ve been through a lot. I had to press my way through. But I’m going with Jesus all the way.” Many African Americans lived amidst the poverty, racism, and other struggles. Endurance was required on a regular basis. In the end, they did endure and press their way through with Jesus, never losing the hope they have in Christ.

This endurance with Jesus embodied itself in the testimony part of the service. Mr. and Mrs. Robinson told their story of how the Lord comforted them in their time of need. Mr. Robinson’s foot was infected and they had to make the choice either take it off and have a fifty percent chance of survival or leave it and die. They were reliant on Jesus to keep Mr. Robinson alive. God did have everything in place for them, their daughter who had left the state for twenty years had moved back to the area recently and the surgeon was on hand. Mr. Robinson even had a dream telling him that he was going to live. Mr. Robinson did survive and was able to stand before the congregation bearing testimony to God’s unfailing love. Mr. Robinson also resumed many of his functions within the church and as he put it, “the Lord has put me back to work”. This was a personal story and therefore an exposure of vulnerability. My church does testimonies mainly at baptisms and before acceptance of prospective members for membership. For a few months when the Karen, who are Burmese refugees, began coming to the church gave testimonies of the persecution they endured in Burma.

They then gave the announcements of upcoming events. The first was Sunday school. They handed out forms for each age group to sign up and rides were available to bring the children to Sunday school. They were very passionate about insuring that the children have a passion for the Lord. In this, there is some concern for even the young in the community as well as a future orientation insuring that the young maintain the faith.

The second announcement was for faith factor. This is a program to encourage healthy eating. The church is brining in a nutritionist to insure against as they put it ‘digging their graves with their mouths’. In this, there is an expression of the holistic qualities of the church; caring not only about the spiritual wellbeing of the individual but the physical as well. The announcement for the food shelf also shares a common concern for the wholeness of the person. Those who have plenty of food are encouraged to donate some to the food shelf to help those that are struggling.

Another announcement was for the revival that was starting in that service, led by Dr. Ian Bethel. He would be speaking in the evenings through Wednesday, the fourteenth. While the food announcements were the physical side, the revival is the spiritual side that makes it holistic. While at my own church there was a revival back when it was just getting started in 1873, however, it is something the church abandoned. The Caucasian church is in need of a revival like never before, as numbers dwindle, times are getting tough and half-hearted Christianity is on the rise.

The final announcement was a golf tournament to benefit the Mission and Benevolence Fund. They are using hedonistic secular games to glorify God through building relationships and using the eighty dollars per person to play toward their missions and benevolence within the church. The whole event is to serve God within the community and to nurture the community.  There is also a holistic component in incorporating a secular game to into Christian fellowship.

            The children then gathered in the front of the church for a children’s sermon. Again, this shows the importance the church places on children as members of the community and for the future of the church. The children’s sermon was on the two greatest commandments but it was a rather strange way of teaching it. The leader had left his bag in the pew and asked the kids the best way to go and get it. The children wanted him to just walk in a straight line towards it and pick it up. However, he felt the best way was to go in the opposite direction out the sanctuary through the choir to the other side of the sanctuary retrieve the bag and go all the way back the way he came. Therefore, he raced one of the children, he going his way and the child going their own. The child won easily. The point was that simplicity is better than complex. Therefore, remembering the two greatest commandments love God and love your neighbor is what is important because all the other commandments fall under this. In this it also illustrates the keep it simple mentality of African American Christianity. They did not have complex philosophies and theologies as is present in many Caucasian churches[3]. They do not question how three can be one or how Jesus can be both God and man, but accept it based on faith. There is pragmatism within this approach to Christianity that is representative of their culture. Being more analytical I can both respect the approach and at the same time cannot understand why there is not a push to learn more, growing in knowledge of God. Following the children’s sermon was a prayer then the children left for their own service.

The congregation then sang the chorus of “Have A Little Talk with Jesus”. I knew this song via the Oak Ridge Boys rendition of it. This song was not listed in the bulletin showing a willingness to adapt to the spirits leading. The song itself expresses a close and intimate relationship with God. In the song chorus, a conversation between God and man occurs, where man tells Him all about their troubles, God hears their faintest cry and answers the prayer. With the understanding that just a little talk with Jesus makes it right. It would seem as if God were just a genie in a bottle, giving them all the desires of their hearts. At the same time, there is an intimacy between the communicator and God with the hope of God continuing sufficiency amidst struggle.

Before the offering, the leader read from Psalms 92:12-15, which speaks of the righteous flourishing. She was using scripture as a tool to elicit emotion from those who attended in an effort to encourage the giving of money.  Scripture was used throughout the service to elicit emotion this was one of those occasions where I wondered about whether it was ethical to elicit emotion for the giving of money to the church. 

As we penetrated deeper and deeper into the heart of worship, the choir began to sing. W The song spoke of God as a cleaner of the church, cleaning this house, sweeping this house and other things in which many of them could identify with, they personified God and made Him similar to themselves. God comes to embody some of the same struggles they are going through but has the power to clean the church so to speak using the indirect communication in the song. Therefore, we see an awe and reverence given to God as well as a personal nature applied to God in His dealings with the church.

As the offering concluded, the church sang, “Praise Him from whom all Blessings Flow”. The congregation then stood for the reading of scripture. Standing for a scripture reading is a practice that a year ago, I would have found to be strange but since learning of the Jewish practice and having it incorporated into my home church, am beginning to understand it. The standing during the reading of God’s word is in reverence, honoring the status that God and His word have in the church. It would be liken to rising when an elder walks in the room in Asian cultures. The scripture verses came from John 13:1-17, which is the washing of the disciple’s feet.

Before, Dr. Bethel delivered his message on the text. “Lift Him Up” was used as a meditation hymn. It was certainly the most up beat meditation hymns I have ever heard. The message of the song comes from John 12:32 where Jesus says that when he is lifted up from the earth he will draw all men unto himself. The verses speak of living Christian lives, in essence, being good examples, as the sermon would emphasize. Another verse spoke about not exalting the preacher or pew but preach the gospel simple full and free. This verse has imbedded in it an egalitarian stance of not exalting the preacher, a stance for honesty in preaching the gospel, but also being pragmatic in its preaching.

            Doctor Ian Bethel came with a musician Antwan Carter from New Beginnings Baptist Tabernacle. This was a bit strange for me that a preacher would be traveling with a musician. Music played an important part in every aspect of the service including the prayers. It never really occurred to me for a musician to travel with the pastor. The music during the sermon and service established a particular emotional reaction that went along with the words. I find it hard to believe that it is just coincidental that they line up. However, Costen, in her works on African American worship emphasized the leaning on the spirit for especially prayers[4]. It would seem as if the church has moved towards preparation for the service and coordination between the musician and leader for the purpose of the establishment of a particular emotional reaction.  

Doctor Bethel emphasized that Jesus set an example in the sermon text. Therefore, Christians ought to be an example of the saviors love. Jesus loved even of those who betrayed him and disowned him. Therefore, Christians ought to love unconditionally, even when it seems impossible to love a person. He argues that often Christians like to choose the capacity and people that they serve.  Instead, Dr. Bethel argues that as Jesus humbled himself to wash the disciples feet likewise Christians need to humble themselves. Finally, he looks at Jesus example of servant leadership. He argues that no one earns the right to lead until he/she has learned to serve. The servant is not greater than their master. Here he establishes an egalitarian connection between humanity, disregarding status within society and rejecting power structures in which the leader is not also a servant. He ended the sermon with a lot of energy and repetition. He continued to repeat the verse before each of his sermon points. Repetition was a way of emphasizing the point that the speaker was making. The high level of energy also established an emotional response from the congregation.

Throughout the sermon, Dr. Bethel used jokes used as illustrations his points. One story illustrated conditional love by using a professor who could love except in the difficult times. Another joke incorporated the Burger King motto “have it your way”, to illustrate the attitudes of many Christians that want things their way. These stories were very relatable for the crowd. They overall flowed well with the rest of the sermon. The jokes also served to lighten the mood, and had an emotional effect. African American sermons have a lot of energy and emotion; speakers design the message to get the congregation involved. Therefore, like a Shakespearean play, comic relief is sometimes necessary in order that emotion might again rise when the message continues. The crowd seemed to respond well to the jokes and stories that Dr. Bethel told. Often when jokes were incorporated into my home churches service they do not flow well with the rest of the sermon and somewhat deviate from the main message.

Following the sermon was an alter call. A young boy and middle-aged woman responded to the call and came forward to receive the Lord. The deacons of the church prayed with them and took their information to get them signed up for classes and baptism. The church applauded as they came forward and voted to accept their call without dissent. The community gathered around them as they took this step of faith. Alter calls have not been practiced in my church for some time and when they were practiced I do not know of anyone that responded and came forward.

As the service came to a close the whole church joined hands in prayer. This illustrates most of all the community and standing in solidarity with one another. Symbolically, the whole church was linked to one another, boldly approaching the throne of God. Second, it also illustrates a tactile cultural component to the African American worship service. Holding each others hands, embracing one another, and many other forms of touching were accepted as it brought them together and connected them. Too often in Caucasian churches people worry about if the person sitting next to them have germs or simply do not want to be touched.  Hence, they attend church with bubbles of comfort surrounding them, unwilling to get close with those around them. However, for two prayers at Pilgrim the church joined hands. Before church hugs and kisses were exchanged, touching each other through affectionate means seemed to be an essential part of what brings them together as a community.   As we left the sanctuary and church, congregation members invited us back and greeted us. They were very accepting of us and welcoming of us regardless of our race or creed

Pilgrim had a unique blend between contemporary American culture and traditional African customs. They have moved towards a great degree of planning in their services but have also incorporated hymns, African face painting and bodily movements into their worship service. Too often churches are caught in their own traditions and are slow to adjust to a changing world. Pilgrim is an example of how to balance a deep history and culture with contemporary worship.  Another important aspect of church worship is community. In an era when churches are getting extremely large, congregations are getting impersonal with each other. Community, as displayed in the example of Pilgrim Baptist, must be a central element of any church service.

We entered the heart of worship at Pilgrim Baptist church and met a culture different from our own. In this culture, we participated in their holistic orientation, communal orientation, egalitarianism, indirect and emotional communication, pragmatic, tactile, and task orientation. These cultural traits were displayed in a variety of ways throughout the service. Many of these traits were present within my home characteristic but there were also some definite differences. Nevertheless, the common faith bonded us together in Christ. For that one church service, our ethnic and cultural differences did not matter. We were one in heart and mind, participating together in worship.

Bibliography

Bethel, Ian. “Revival Week”. Sermon, Church Service from Pilgrim Baptist Church, Saint Paul, MN, September 11, 2011. 

Cone, James H. The Spirituals and the Blues. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 2008.

Costen, Melva W. African American Christian Worship, 2^nd ed. Nashville Tennessee: Abingdon Press, 2007.  

Gudykunst, William B. Bridging Differences: Effective Intergroup Communications, 4^th ed. Thousand Oaks California: Sage Publications Inc, 2004.

Jandt, Fred E. An Introduction to Intercultural Communications: Identities in a Global Context, 6^th ed. Los Angeles California: Sage Publications Inc, 2010.

Lingenfelter, Sherwood, and Marvin Mayers. Ministering Cross Culturally: An Incarnational Model for Personal Relationships, 2^nd ed. Grand Rapids Michigan: Baker Academic, 2003.

Matson-Daley, Richard, Gerald Dodd, Denise Loving, and Aaron Rupert. “Pilgrim’s History”, Pilgrim Baptist Church, http://pilgrimbaptistchurch.org/about/history/ (accessed September 22, 2011).

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[1] Matson-Daley, Richard, Gerald Dodd, Denise Loving, and Aaron Rupert. “Pilgrim’s History”, Pilgrim Baptist Church, http://pilgrimbaptistchurch.org/about/history/ (accessed September 22, 2011)

[2] Cone, James H. The Spirituals and the Blues. (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 2008), 4-5, 23-26.

[3] Costen, Melva W. African American Christian Worship, 2^nd ed. (Nashville Tennessee: Abingdon Press, 2007), 66.

[4] Costen, Melva W. African American Christian Worship, 2^nd ed. (Nashville Tennessee: Abingdon Press, 2007), 94

Epistemology and Being-for-otherness Relationship with Culture

First, epistemologically, people are the product of a-posteriori encounters interpreted through innate mechanisms within us. For instance, before me is a horizontal square connected to four vertical parts in each corner holding it up, because I have seen this object before and someone has linked the word “table” to it, I understand this object to be a table. My experience of the criterion for an object to be a table, when applied to the object classifies it under the heading of table. Other people through their experiences might classify it as other things, based on the unique features that they see in the object.  For example, in Eskimo culture, they have 24 words for snow[1]. This is because they pick out different qualities in snow, its shape, size, etc. that distinguishes between different forms of what we call snow. Cultural and linguistic filters enable us to notice certain things about an object and not others. The language of a culture therefore contributes to the perspective members of that culture have with regard to reality. Therefore, because I always lived in United States culture, it has skewed my view of reality to be in conformity with it, through a variety of ways dealt with in this paper.  However, because of innate mechanisms within me, to a certain extent I can be a unique person within the culture and transform the United States culture.

Second, with regard to human relations, embedded within our very existence is a being-for-otherness. “The Lord God said, “It is not good for man to be alone” Genesis 2:18 (The JPS Bible), people were created to live in community with one another, caring for one another to the very extent of denying oneself for the purposes of the other. These relationships make us who we are, as they are a part of our a-posteriori encounters, but also in that, they show us who we are in the comparison. I can only know that I have a particular quality if another person has a quality that is different from my own. These relationships provide meaning to life as people seek to serve others in what they do.  Everyone therefore has a need to belong, to have a relationship with another human being. Often in order to meet the need a commonality must exist between the parties, perhaps this might be a common interest or experience.  In the United States, the unifying factor is the “American dream” myth; this is the belief that anyone can make it in the United States if one just tries hard enough. Therefore, to participate in the culture of the United States one must be individualistic, working towards their own betterment by investing their time to a particular task.  There is a constant push towards progress and productivity. One has the choice either to participate and belong within this culture or fall under a culturally derogatory label and left behind (ex. welfare recipients). Culture, therefore, plays an essential role in our epistemology and relationships. Such an essential role that the values of the culture often become values we find in ourselves.

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[1] Fay, Brian. Contemporary Philosophy of Social Sciences. (Malden Massachusetts.: Blackwell Publishers., 1996)  78

Worship’s Cultural Values, Christian African American and Latino American’s Cultural Values Displayed in their Worship

 

        African American’s, Latino’s and Caucasians each has a unique style of worship that comes out of their cultural values. In their books, The Spirituals and the Blues and African American Christian Worship by James Cone and Melva Costen respectively, describe African American churches and worship. While Justo González in his books Santa Biblia and Mañana looks at Latino’s history and theology. Analysis of the worship styles displayed in these works exposes some of the cultural values of the group. The objective of this work is to summarize the arguments made in each book, analyze the cultural patterns of each group noting similarities and differences and reflecting on my own cultural values, learning and relational growth.

            The Spirituals and the Blues by James Cone looks specifically at African American songs. He argued that music acted as a unifying force for the community. Cone argued that because of the holistic approach taken by African American’s in not separating the sacred from the secular, blues music and the spirituals compliment each other. This music expressed the emotional state of African Americans living under slavery. They longed for divine liberation from their slavery, identifying with the Jews in Exodus. Because of their bondage, family and marriage did not have legal bonding, nor was scripture philosophically analyzed or read, instead faith was on an experiential basis. He emphasizes the separation between African Americans and Caucasians with regard to the relationship between human rights and scripture, even arguing the God of white music is not the same God that is in black music.  

            African American Christian Worship by Melva Costen looks at the development of African American churches or what she called the “invisible institute”. Because of laws limiting the ability of African’s to organize, African slaves formed invisible institutes, or undercover organizations in which they were able to worship God in their own way. Often services had a lot of emotion in them, from the crowd in its response and from the speaker in the message. Support for the message was shown through nonverbal signals like pointing and waving. The whole service was devoted to worship through word and action. Kinship was a key component of the services, people coming together and fellowshipping with each other made it something people looked forward to each time. Like Cone, she emphasized that African slaves did not have a predetermined theology but operated mostly from experience.

            Santa Biblia by Justo González shows how Latinos interpret scripture from the perspective of the marginalized. He tells of the marginalization of Latinos through poverty, being of a mixed race, and exiles or aliens in the United States. Latinos, therefore, identify with the marginalized characters in scripture. He, therefore, emphasizes a stand of solidarity with the oppressed and marginalized in the world.  

            Mañana by Justo González looks more at the theology in Latino Christianity. He argues that the purpose of theology is to discover the purpose of God. He argues that the best way to do this is through cataphatic discourse and recognizing the historic viewpoints of the church fathers. He argues for a holistic approach without the dualism of soul and body therein recognizing the goodness of creation. He argued that the creation started in the beginning and continues in sustaining the existence of created matter. They see God as dynamically involved in the affairs of man but do not hold that God is impassible, infinite and omnipotent. They hold that the trinity is to be an example for the church to live in community with one another, mutually giving and sharing that all might become one. Faith is something that we are part of and something that we carry out through a kingdom orientation, continually pushing toward perfection.

            These worship styles and theologies have been shaped by the cultural values of each group. Both Latino’s and African’s share a feminine culture, a holistic worldview, and  a collectivistic mindset. African American’s however tend to have more of an individualist focus than Latino’s, they are spontaneous, emotional and indirect communicators, and are past oriented. Latinos, on the other hand, are family and people oriented which is incorporated into their task orientation and are present oriented. These are some of the major cultural values that can be drawn from the texts; many more do exist that are not treated directly in this work.

            Feminine culture was expressed in many ways in African American worship, including that African slaves did not see themselves as different from their masters. Their theology saw no justification for slavery. For them, all men were created equal endowed by their creator with certain inalienable rights regardless of color. They confused freedom in God with freedom from any authority in the egalitarian stance that they took to the issue of slavery. Caucasian interpretations of Romans 13:1-7 and 1 Peter 2:13-21 were distortions of scripture. Instead of bearing “the pain of unjust suffering because they are conscious of God” 1 Peter 2:19b (NIV) they escaped through the underground railroad to the North. The egalitarianism and concern to stand up for the rights of the oppressed, themselves, prompted them not only to escape but to underperform in their work for their masters.

            Similarly, feminine culture was expressed through Latino Christianity through their concern for the marginalized in the world. Latinos identify with the poor, the exile, and the mixed raced outcasts of society. They are therefore compassionate to those who have become marginalized in society. They also favor egalitarianism but not to the extent of removing all authority as was seen in African American egalitarianism. Some of this is due to the Catholic roots in Latino culture with the hierarchical system of the Catholic Church. Nevertheless, there is a mutual respect that they have for each other. They are willing to listen to Caucasian theologians throughout history as well as evaluate from their own perspectives. González argued that Christian theology is like a landscape in which everyone looks upon from varying perspectives, each of which provides a unique and equal view to the truth. They are willing to enter into discussion about the truths in scripture and are respectful of others views.

            African American Christians do not separate between the sacred and profane but hold to a holistic worldview. In Cone’s treatment of the spirituals and the blues, he argued that they compliment each other. The blues from a more secular perspective and the spirituals from the Christian perspective both come together to show the emotional distress and crying out of African slaves. Cone argued that aspects of the spirituals were references to worldly things. For instance, in certain spirituals home for them is the North or Africa where they have freedom in the world. He also connects chariots and trains to the Underground Railroad bringing fugitive slaves to the North. African slaves in many ways saw themselves as the Israelites in the Exodus looking for a literal promised land on the earth rather than a kingdom that is not of this world.

            Latinos also deny dualisms in favor of a holistic approach to the world. They see the goodness of all things. A case in point of this is their views of the incarnation. They deny the Gnostic view that the flesh is evil and the Platonist divide of soul and flesh to assert that Jesus was wholly God and wholly man. They believe that God became man and dwelt among us, particularly among the marginalized and oppressed. They see this as something to be imitated and are lead, through their kingdom orientation, toward living in this world in such a way that their faith and hope might be lived out.   

Collectivism and group orientation is also a major aspect of African American Christian worship. Each of them comes from a shared struggle of trying to survive in a Caucasian dominated society. The church acted as a unifying force for African Americans to come together for fellowship, hope and to organize themselves. Baptisms, particularly baptisms by immersion, were major events in the African American community, and they would travel from miles around to witness one.  All of them shared in a kinship that formed based on their mutual interdependence and shared experience. As a group they would worship together, even their shouting became a ritualized group activity.

Latinos also were very collectivistic. Family is particularly important for Latinos. This makes it incredibly difficult for Latinos to leave their home countries to come to the United States and when they do get to the United States, why their church family is so important to them. As Latinos, they have a shared history of living on the margins that bonds them together as a community. Latinos look at the doctrine of the Trinity as an example for the church to follow. As the Father, Son and Spirit share in their being so to the church should become one, sharing with one another. The best theology they argue is a communal enterprise made up of everyone’s views. They are therefore very ecumenical and accepting of other Christians. 

There are certain traits that are more characteristic of African Americans that make them a unique group. While they are collectivists, they are more individualistic than were Latinos. Much of this is due to their history. Marriages at the time were not legally binding and it was common for spouses to be broken up and parents from their children through the slave trade. While others in the community might be there for them in these times, they were forced to accept a level of individualism apart from blood relatives. Individualism is also seen through the use of the Underground Railroad. Individuals who thought that they would rather risk dying than live in bondage tried to escape through the Underground Railroad abandoning the community in their own pursuit of freedom in the North.

African American’s are also very spontaneous and emotional communicators. This is done particularly through songs, shouting during the services, and preaching. In the spirituals, blues and gospel songs the singer expressed their feelings and emotions. They expressed what they were going through and how they were suffering. These songs were a release for the singers from the problems they were going through. The shouting also is the outpouring of emotion from African American worshipers. Stating whatever is on their mind and responding to the presenter is a form of expression. These emotions from the singers and congregations were often personal, and displayed a willingness to expose vulnerabilities through these forms of communication. Preachers through their style try to elicit emotion from their audience, carefully selecting words and tones, repeating certain phrases, all were used to create a particular atmosphere in the church. Another aspect of their communication is the indirectness of it, often communicating through metaphor. In the days of slavery, trains and chariots were symbolic for the Underground Railroad, and home often meant the North or Africa. These indirect forms of communication kept slave owners in the dark about what was taking place, but allowed African Americans to communicate with each other through coded songs.  A high level of context was therefore required to understand fully African Americans communication. 

African Americans are also very past oriented. They are very aware of the bondage of their ancestors and cannot bring themselves to move beyond it. A resentment of Caucasians exists in Cone’s work to such an extent he does not believe Caucasians and Africans are serving the same God and that Caucasians have distorted scripture. They often look for areas in which Caucasians marginalize them and to a certain degree embellish it. This perceived persecution is what unifies them as a community. History, to a degree, is circular for the African American, having repeated patterns of persecution.

Latinos are particularly family and person oriented. It is particularly difficult for Latinos to leave their home countries because of the closeness they have to family and friends. Family for Latinos extends to distant relatives that are treated like immediate family. Therefore, when Latinos do get to the United States church families are particularly important. Being for others is particularly important to Latinos as they seek to stand in solidarity with the marginalized of the world. Standing with the marginalized is the task that Latinos seek to accomplish. In this, they are very task oriented. Through their kingdom orientation they seek to live out their faith in the here and not yet of the kingdom of God.  They are dedicated to completing the tasks that God has called them to do, and work hard to see them accomplished.

This way of seeing the kingdom of God also makes them present oriented. While avoiding triumphalism they seek to make the most of what they have in the establishment of the kingdom of God here and now. They believe that following the death and resurrection of Christ the resurrection has already begun. It is not a future resurrection, as many Caucasians believe, but a resurrection that is currently taking place. All of these things point to an immediacy of particular elements of eschatology that comes out of their present time orientation. The sovereignty of God also plays a factor in their present orientation. While they do not hold to an impassible, infinite, omnipotent God, they do believe that God’s creation continues through His sustaining of the world. Because God is in control, tomorrow will take care of itself, there is no need to worry about tomorrows problems today.

How then do these cultural perspectives on scripture compare with the Caucasian Christian church of which I am a participant? Caucasian Christianity in the United States often have a dualistic understanding of Christianity separating the sacred from the profane. There are traditions like the Neo-Calvinist tradition that takes a more holistic approach, finding no separation between body and soul or sacred and profane. From this tradition, I went through undergrad and was shaped in my Christian views. Therefore, Caucasian Christianity is divided on many issues and it is difficult to classify the whole into any particular category. Which tradition within Caucasian Christianity one comes from contributes to which cultural trait they hold on this issue and many others.

Most Caucasian Christians are very task oriented. Church is done like a task and not experienced. Many learn how to go through the motions of church. Children in particular learn to be seen and not heard when they go to church. Any noise is disrespectful and embarrassing for the noisemaker and the family. Tradition is what is important in the Caucasian church. The Caucasian church also takes on the task to spread its views of scripture to the heathen in the rest of the world. This task is accomplished through systems and strategies designed to address different elements of “evangelism”. While I fall under task orientation, I place my trust in God and not human made systems.

I tend to have a moderate level of context. I am moderately aware of what is going on in the Middle East, South Asia, North East Africa and Europe in terms of their politics and culture. However, the Caucasian church also tends to be very low context. They focus only on what is going on in their small localities and do not care about other countries and cultures. When missionaries come to give updates they do not care as much about what is going on in the country but rather whether their money is being put to good use. The question is how many souls have this missionary saved not questions about how God is at work. This also illustrates the achievement focus of the Caucasian church. While I have an achievement focus, I do not see it as what I have achieved but what God has achieved through me.

The Caucasian church is also time oriented. If church goes longer than the allotted amount of time people are not happy about it. Church is supposed to start at a particular time and end at a particular time. They follow a strict monochromic time system as if worship can only happen within certain time constraints and therefore must be limited to a specific time span. In the bulletins are specific schedules to keep leaving no room for a movement of the spirit to step outside of these structures. In part because I have lived in monochromic time my whole life, and the fact that I live in an entertainment era it is difficult for me to sit for a long time in any one place, however, I am trying to change to be more adaptable to the movement of the spirit.

While it will vary from tradition to tradition, most Caucasian Christians are future oriented looking towards to the triumphal reign of Christ. Neo-Calvinists take a past, present and future approach. They look to the past at the workings of God throughout history, to the present for His workings now in the restoration of the world and to the future for the final restoration to occur. This goes with the holistic approach taken by Neo-Calvinists arguing that the past, present and future are so interrelated that they compliment each other. I often, like the African Americans tend to dwell in the past and project it upon the present. For instance, in United States history, I look at the Tuskegee syphilis study and the many other similar studies going on during the time, the Japanese concentration camps, Hiroshima  and Guantanamo Bay as indicators of what the United States really thinks about the right to life and liberty.  Unjust wars like the Revolutionary War, the Spanish American war and the current occupations of Iraq and Afghanistan only further confirm the wretchedness of the culture and the government that the culture has bred. Militarism, materialism and hypocrisy are fundamental to the United States internationally and domestically. The pure pride and patriotism of the people of the United States is even extended into the language. The people who live in the United States call themselves “Americans”, claiming for themselves alone, a title that could belong to the entire Western Hemisphere. What makes the people of the United States more American than the Canadians, Mexicans, Cubans, or Chileans that they can claim the title to themselves? Do not they also belong to North, Central and South America and are therefore American? 

Regardless of these aspects of United States culture, the goodness of creation still extends into United States culture in some capacity.  While I struggle to see it, God has placed me within this culture for a reason and undoubtedly, I have become part of the culture. It is not necessarily bad to be individualistic or time oriented but rather it is how these traits are used. The God who is sovereign over all things has allowed these traits to be used in the way that they have, and though I might not understand it, God can use it for His purposes.

Learning it and actually applying and living by it are two different things. To a certain degree it becomes more of an intellectual exercise rather than a life changing experience. I have especially tried to avoid ad homonym arguments being respectful of their person, culture and family. However, the way I perceive things is not always the way that they perceive it or the way that it actually occurs. Often times my time orientation and perceptions within it is perceived as coldness by those who are event oriented. For instance, when I passed a fellow Caucasian in the hall and they gave greeting, I give greeting in return and continue on my way not perceiving it as an attempt for further communication. What I perceive from my vantage point as a simple friendly greeting is not the same as what they perceived from their vantage point, a call to further communication. The problem becomes when I come across someone how do I know which cultural values they hold. There is not a sign that accompanies people telling others what cultural values that they hold. Ethnicity is not always an indicator, as was shown in the example.

Cone and Costen through their treatment of African American Christianity and González through his treatment of Latino Christianity paint a picture of each group’s cultural perspectives on scripture. African Americans and Latinos have taken the scripture and contextualized it to their particular culture and situation. Through identification with different biblical characters and stories they see hope amidst the despair and marginalization. While Caucasians often look at scripture from a perspective of affluence, Latinos and African Americans provide a unique view from the perspective of the marginalized. Each perspective has something to contribute to Christianity. At the same time, each comes at scripture from a particular bias that clouds their reading of scripture. Culture has a way of highlighting certain portions of scripture and distorting others as was seen from the Caucasians and African Americans during the time of slavery with regard to slave rights and authority. Therefore, cultural values act as both a facilitator and inhibitor of ones reading of scripture. Latinos and African Americans have so much to contribute to Christianity. An ecumenical approach, taking into account all of the different cultural vantage points is needed now more than ever. There is so much to learn from each other to allow our differences to divide us.

Bibliography

Cone, James H. The Spirituals and the Blues. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 2008.

Costen, Melva W. African American Christian Worship, 2^nd ed. Nashville Tennessee: Abingdon Press, 2007.

González, Justo. Santa Biblia: The Bible Through Hispanic Eyes. Nashville Tennessee: Abingdon Press, 1996.

González, Justo. Mañana: Christian Theology from a Hispanic Perspective. Nashville Tennessee: Abingdon Press, 1990.  

Gudykunst, William B. Bridging Differences: Effective Intergroup Communications, 4^th ed. Thousand Oaks California: Sage Publications Inc, 2004.

Jandt, Fred E. An Introduction to Intercultural Communications: Identities in a Global Context, 6^th ed. Los Angeles California: Sage Publications Inc, 2010.

Lingenfelter, Sherwood, and Marvin Mayers. Ministering Cross Culturally: An Incarnational Model for Personal Relationships, 2^nd ed. Grand Rapids Michigan: Baker Academic, 2003.

The Clash of Civilizations, Al-Qaeda’s Clash with the West

In an article written in Foreign Affairs, Samuel P. Huntington proposed a theory for foreign relations that he called “The Clash of Civilizations”.[1] In his article, he laid out six reasons why clashes occur between civilizations. First, differences among civilizations are real and basic to our humanity. Civilizations differentiate in their history, language, culture, tradition and most importantly in their religion. Second, the world is becoming a smaller place through forces like globalization, putting people of different civilizations into contact with one another. Third, the process of economic modernization and social change throughout the world are separating people from their longstanding identities. Fourth, the growth of a civilizations consciousness is enhanced by the dual role of the West. The West is at the peak of its power and because of it, there are pushes to return to the roots of the civilization occurring in non-western civilizations. Fifth, cultural characteristics and differences are less mutable and hence less easily compromised and changed. Sixth, economic regionalism is increasing and different economic blocs have developed. Huntington went on to argue that if a civilization wanted to redefine itself three things must be present. First, the political and economic elite must be generally supportive of the move. Second, the public must be willing to acquiesce in the redefinition. Third, the dominant groups in the recipient civilization must be willing to embrace the conversion. This clash of civilizations model will show why enmity has developed between al-Qaeda and the West and why there is an ideological crisis in Islam.

Differences Between Civilizations  

A central part of al-Qaeda’s worldview is the notion of archetypes.[2] Al-Qaeda uses the Crusades as an archetype for the West’s “invasion” into the Middle East. Al-Qaeda interpreted the Crusades as the West’s attempt at territorial expansion and the destruction of Islam. This archetype was confirmed by the United States and Europe’s continual support of Israel’s occupation of Palestine. Just as the crusaders sought to control Israel, al-Qaeda views the West as continuing the mission of the Crusades, control of Israel and the death of Islam. History is repeating itself. Just as the Muslims were victorious during the Crusades they will in turn be successful in the current crusade that the West has launched on Islamic lands.

 Another central archetype for al-Qaeda was the Soviet Afghan war. Al-Qaeda got its roots in the jihad against the Soviets invasion of Afghanistan. Because of god’s assistance, they were able to defeat the Soviet Union, leading to the collapse of one of the world’s superpowers. Al-Qaeda then turned to the other superpower in the world, the United States, and hoped for a similar outcome. They thought it would be easier to defeat the Americans because of the archetype that they had established of the United States as a paper tiger. They looked at the United States withdrawal from Somalia and Vietnam[3] as proof of America’s cowardice. They believed that by striking the United States on September 11, 2001 one of two things would happen based upon the history between the two groups. One, America would do absolutely nothing as they had done following the USS Cole incident in 2000 or they would launch missile strikes on al-Qaeda training camps as they did following the bombings of the United States Embassies under Clinton. However, this was a grave miscalculation and a false archetype, as al-Qaeda would soon discover, and it would cost them their home base of Afghanistan. Al-Qaeda was forced into self-protection mode deferring attacks of the same scale as the September 11, 2001 attack. [4]  

The theology behind Islam contains Five Pillars. The first Pillar is the Shaddrah or confession that there is “no god but god and Muhammad is his prophet”. The second pillar is the Selat or prayer done five times a day in the direction of Mecca. The third Pillar is the Zakat or giving to the poor a tithe. The fourth Pillar is the Siyam or fasting, done particularly at Ramadan. The fifth Pillar is the hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca, to be done at least once in ones life if one has the means to do it. Some have argued that jihad is the sixth Pillar of Islam and therefore essential for all Muslims, even some who are not radicals. Jihad has an internal and external component to it, usually with the internal being more important than the external. Jihad can be divided up into four parts: jihad of the heart (obedience in life), jihad of the mouth (witness in words), jihad of the hands (deeds) and jihad of the sword (war).[5] Jihadists typically overemphasize jihad of the sword, even though the Hadith, one of the holy books of Islam, calls it the lesser jihad. Jihad of the sword had an offensive and defensive component and could only be declared by the Caliph during much of Muslim history. The problem became that with the fall of the Ottoman Empire the Caliph position no longer existed. The question then became who can declare a jihad and when a jihad could be declared. Most Muslims argue that there must be a physical invasion into a Muslim territory for a defensive jihad to be declared and only leaders of Muslim countries can declare it. The only offensive jihad should be missionary work. However, jihadists have argued that any influence in the Muslim world constitutes a defensive jihad, whether it is ideological or physical and an offensive jihad is a possibility, all of which can be declared by any rightly guided Muslim.[6]

This jihadist ideology developed mainly in the medieval period from several scholars. The first of these scholars was Ibn Taymiyyah[7] who believed that Muslims could not live in lands ruled by infidels, Muslims must follow Shar’ia as interpreted by scholars, and Muslims must fight apostates and unbelief. Ibn Taymiyyah’s views would influence Muhammad Ibn Abd-al-Wahab[8] who expanded upon Ibn Taymiyyah’s views. He argued that Muslims should learn to think for themselves and not just follow the Caliph’s leading. Central to his view is the tawhid, which is divided into three pieces, God’s Lordship, Worship, and Name. God is supreme and He has no associates; therefore, anyone who tries to play God is an apostate. Since God is the lawmaker through His Shar’ia, anyone who makes their own law falls into apostasy. No human can be prayed to or bare the name of God. God alone is sovereign, not states or people, therefore anyone claiming authority over another become an apostate. Muslims are slaves of God and serve Him only, however, in this slavery is true freedom. True freedom is found in God alone and is therefore not derived by man. Wahabian thought had an influence on the Islamic awakening at the end of European Imperialism in the Middle East. A third thinker, Muhammad Rashid Rida[9] adopted Wahabism and argued that Muslims should stop attempting to imitate the infidels, while some changes could be made, Muslims should not become like the unbelievers. 

            Hassan al-Banna[10] was another key thinker in the jihadist movement. He redefined nationalism, capitalism, socialism and feminism into Islamic terms. He saw the West as an intellectual and physical threat. He had a strong emphasis on the unity of Muslims and emphasized the importance of a proper Islamic education and lifestyle. In this area, he called Muslims back to Islam. He called faithful believers to participate in jihad against unbelief, driving unbelievers from Muslim lands and pursue them to their lands, not necessarily to kill them but to guide them to the truth. He created the Muslim Brotherhood, a cross-national party that did not engage in political life instead concerned themselves with livelihood of Muslims by providing education and basic welfare to those in need. HAMAS split off from the Brotherhood and became a violent presence in Palestine. Another break off was Sayyid Qutb[11] who believed that only through violence can the Brotherhood’s goals be reached. He provided a new interpretation of lordship, jihad and ignorance (to include Muslims not following Shar’ia). He argued for an intellectual and physical combat with non-Muslims and apostates.                          

            Mawdudi[12] argued that Muslims should attempt to revive Islam peacefully but jihad will eventually be essential for Islam, as violence will eventually become necessary. He argued that Muslims must battle with liberalism and modernity and saw the West as rotting away under these ideologies. Components of these thinkers would form the basis for al-Qaeda ideology but was not accepted by the vast majority of Muslims today. This disagreement has lead to conflict within Islam as to how to react to Western ideology. Islam itself is divided between several groups the majority fall into Sunni and Shiite camps but others are Sufi, Kharihites, and very few are part of the radical organizations responsible for the terrorist attacks. Therefore, there is not only a clash between the al-Qaeda civilization and Western civilization but also a clash within Muslim civilization itself because of the differences in religion.

Islamic civilization of legalism, morality and theology is contrasted by the West’s secularism. Al-Qaeda attacks the United States social and economic structure on several fronts.[13] First, because they believe Islam is the only true religion they call Americans to convert to Islam. Second, they call Americans to live moral and upright lives. This means ending the separation between church and state and implementing God’s law, the Shar’ia. They call America to end usury in the economy. They call Americans to stop using drugs and other intoxicants. They call America to practice sexual purity noting President Clinton’s repeated lapses on this account. They call America to end gambling in all of its forms including Wall Street investment. They call America to stop exploiting women in the media and other mediums. They call America to end sex trades including prostitution and pornography. They blame Americans for the spread of AIDS and other diseases because of its corrupt morality. They call America to step up its efforts to protect the environment and stop caving into companies that pollute. They argue that it is the wealthy ruling the country, in particular, the Jews that control the policies, media and economy. They also question America’s morality in using nuclear weapons and other war tactics that kill noncombatants. They call Americans to end the hypocrisy that they see in American foreign policy. They argue that while West says it stands up for democracy, but it has placed tyrants in charge of the Middle East and fought against the rise of democracy in Algeria. They argue that America has a double standard as to who gets Weapons of Mass Destruction when in fact the only ones to use them is the United States. They argue that America has broken many international laws and treaties including at Guantanamo Bay and committed several war crimes in Somalia, Lebanon, Iraq and Afghanistan. They see these moral lapses infiltrating the Middle East and corrupting longstanding Islamic civilization. As much as these demands were directed at the United States, it was also directed at other Muslims, to argue that they do not want to become like the West because of the lapse of morality in the region. Al-Qaeda and many other Muslims do not want to see the Middle East states adopting what they see as negative attributes of Western society particularly in terms of morality and economic structure. Al-Qaeda does not want to see aspects of Western Civilization penetrate into Islamic Civilization.

Interaction of Civilizations

The ideological conflicts between the West and al-Qaeda/Islam are only amplified by the increased interaction between Islam and the West because of the foreign policy decisions of the United States and other Western nations. One of the best examples of this was the creation and support for the state of Israel. Israel’s ethnic cleansing of the Palestinian people was seen as an attack on Islamic grounds. Al-Qaeda used this to justify its declaration of a defensive jihad. They justify the declaration, first, because they interpreted it as Jews taking over and ruling Muslim territory. Second, it was seen as a Western military base and gateway into the Middle East. Third, it created an ideological controversy between liberal democracy (man made forms of government) and Shar’ia (God made government).[14]

Another point of contact between Islam and the West was the West’s military presence in Saudi Arabia. After Iraq invaded Kuwait, Bin Laden and his group of Mujahidin offered its services to the Saudi royal family to protect Saudi Arabia. However, the royal family instead accepted the United States offer for protection. The United States had troops stationed in Saudi Arabia from 1990 to 2003. In the eyes of al-Qaeda, it was infidels that were protecting the two Holy Masques and not Muslims, which they took as an insult to Islam. Not only was it infidels, some of them were women that were protecting Muslim men in the country, which only exemplified the insult.  The Saudi royal family was therefore apostate rulers because they let the United States protect the country and allowed them to steal Muslim’s natural resources, particularly oil, because the price was too low. Bin Laden saw many of the leaders of Muslims states as puppets of the West and were therefore apostates.[15]

  There are also several less important negative points of contact in the West’s interaction in the Middle East including, the West’s use of sanctions in Iraq, which Bin Laden argued led to   thousands of Muslim deaths in the country, the bombings in Qana Lebanon, and the deaths of many non-combatants in the conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq. All of these things point to a general theme for al-Qaeda that the West was trying to destroy Muslims.[16] While the West publicly states they support life and liberty, they support Israel’s genocide of the Palestinians. While the West states they support democracy, they place in power tyrants to do its bidding. While they state they favor freedom of religion, Muslims across the Middle East have been targeted and killed by the Zionist-Crusaders. Who are the real terrorists in this picture? In the history of the world, only one country has used nuclear weapons, a weapon that inevitably killed thousands of noncombatants. Al-Qaeda killed a few thousand American noncombatants in retaliation for all the harms done to them and they become terrorists. Americans have developed a double standard that gives Americans more worth than the hundreds of thousands of Muslims that had died at the hands of the West.

Overall, the West has come into closer contact with Muslims in the Middle East and it has resulted in enmity felt by both sides.  The big bully, the West is trying to further its national interest in the Middle East and al-Qaeda and other groups refuse to take it any longer, establishing a clash of civilizations between al-Qaeda and the West. Muslims are therefore left with a choice to resist the West or to submit to the West. This is where the theology of the Muslims becomes paramount as to how they deal with the West. The conditions are such that the Western socio-economic ideology separates the people from their longstanding identities. 

Separated from their Identity

With the rise of globalization Muslims have begun to move into Western lands in search for a better life. However, Western societies, particularly European states, have not been the most receptive of Arabs in the society.[17] Certain policies that are in place in Europe make it difficult to fire someone. Therefore, many Europeans are reluctant to hire immigrants because of the risk involved in hiring usually an under educated and culturally different prospect. The United States tends not to have this problem because the United States has more ability to manage who gains access into the country. The United States can than accept only the educated Muslims who have a better chance of becoming part of American civilization. Another important distinction to make is that in the United States, people subscribe to a notion of an American Dream. This is the myth that everyone can make it in America and go from rags to riches. No such dream exists in Europe and therefore leads to the belief that there is no hope for immigrants in Europe. Muslims in Europe tend to feel ostracized from the rest of society because they cannot find employment nor do they have the hope of becoming successful in Europe. This feeds the notion that the Europe is at war with Islam among European Muslims contributing to their radicalization. This is less the case in the United States because of the immigration restrictions and the myths that the United States has about living the American dream. The radicalization process can happen anywhere, however, there are certain facilitators to this process including anything particularly anti-Islamic like burning the Qur’an or portraying the prophet Muhammad in cartoons by Westerners. Muslims feel separated from their identities and are unable to find new, Western identities in Europe.

The secularism of the West and toleration for what fundamentalist Muslims see as corruption and immorality has begun to infiltrate Islamic lands much to the disgust of fundamentalist Muslims. The Taliban[18] were particularly resistant to the secular influences of the West. They therefore enforced strict Muslim dress. Women wore burkas and veils, which was seen as a way of protecting women from being seen and used as sex objects like they are in the West. Women do not need to care about their appearance because they are completely covered in public. They banned all music and other media devices to protect the people from being influenced by the West and thereby preserve Islamic culture. Punishments for breaking the Shar’ia law was often physical beatings but it could be worse based on the severity of the crime. While it did isolate the culture to some extent, it also turned many people against the movement as well.

On the opposite side of the pendulum of Islamic civilization is the country of Qatar[19], which serves as head quarters for the al-Jazeera network. People flock to Qatar from Saudi Arabia because Qatar allows drinking and sexual license, things that are prohibited in Saudi Arabia. The oil and natural gas reserves in Qatar have allowed Qatar to have the second-highest per capita income in the world. While it still has a ruling family, since 1999, it has become a constitutional democracy with a legislative branch. Adult citizens, including women, are eligible to vote in the elections. Qatar is a Sunni state and recognizes the authority of the Shar’ia that even the king must keep. Therefore, Qatar tries to find a balance between Westernization and Islam.

Back to the Roots

Each of the Islamic civilizations resists the Western civilizations influence to a certain extent. However, the Taliban and al-Qaeda are the most resistant to the Western civilization.  Al-Qaeda and other groups call Muslims to return to the way of Muhammad.[20] Muhammad was the first Caliph and ruler over all of Islam. During his rule, issues developed that he had to deal with and think about. Therefore, it made sense that much of Muhammad’s thoughts in the Qur’an centered on issues pertaining to government and how to rule. Much of the religion itself centered upon a connection between Muslims and government. Especially for the more radical factions of Islam there is no separation between state and religion, they are a unit. This made the fall of the Ottoman Empire hard on Muslims as they struggled to find their identities. The majority of Muslims westernized and slowly adopted some European ideology. However, a more radical faction sought to purify Islam by going back to core principles. They argued that God’s law must be supreme and God must be the ruler of Muslim grounds and not the infidels. Anyone who tried to make laws or rule the people was trying to play God and therefore not an apostate because they defied the lordship of god principle developed by earlier thinkers mentioned above. They believed that the Caliphate failed because Muslims and their rulers were not pure and true Muslims but had fallen into the House of Disbelief. It should be noted here the hypocrisy of al-Qaeda itself with regard to the tawhid by holding for itself the power to determine who are genuine Muslims rather than God alone. Nevertheless, Bin Laden and al-Qaeda see themselves as archetypes of the Prophet Muhammad as they try to recreate Islam out of nothing. Bin Laden had his own hijrah or migration in his quest to form Islam. After having his citizenship in Saudi Arabia stripped following Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait, he settled in Sudan from 1991 to 1996 and established a Mujahadin or warriors much like Muhammad did in Medina. After he was expelled from Sudan, he traveled to Afghanistan where previously he had fought the Soviets. In Afghanistan, he was able to establish a safe haven under the Taliban and was able to assemble and purify himself through his adherence to Shar’ia law as they argued Muhammad did in Medina. Afghanistan was seen as the only Islamic country because it was the only one that implemented true Shar’ia law. Because they thought it was obligatory for Muslims to live under Shar’ia, they called all Muslims to travel to Afghanistan. However, conditions in the country were far from hospitable. Women had no rights, music and all drugs including tobacco and alcohol were prohibited. Living under such conditions did not appeal to many Muslims. While most Muslims appreciated al-Qaeda standing up against Western oppression, most Muslims did not agree with the theology of al-Qaeda or the implications of its theology.[21].Nevertheless, al-Qaeda sees the movement as going back to the roots of Islam in opposition to the West’s growing influence in the region.  

Mutability of Civilization

Al-Qaeda is not simply going to concede or give up. Bin Laden and his group are prepared to go down as martyrs for the cause. The only way for the United States to win the war with radical Islam is to win the people and future generations by making the radical view less appealing. Al-Qaeda assist the United States in this by making its views less appealing to most Muslims by its strict adherence to Shar’ia, however, the United States is not helping its cause with its foreign policy decisions particularly with regard to Palestine. The problem is that the battle is with a civilization that is itself divided. Islam has three holy books, the Qur’an, the Summa and the Hadith (deeds and sayings of Muhammad as told by people associated with him). As Muhammad ruled and assembled the Qur’an, he wasn’t always consistent. He explained that the new revelation was a better revelation for that particular situation.[22] In the Hadith, which was not written by Muhammad, there is debate between Islamic scholars as to which of the verses are inspired and which are not. Therefore, jihadists have minimized the importance of verses speaking about toleration of religions of the book, like Christians and Jews, as no longer applicable and instead emphasized verses speaking about jihad of the sword. They discredit the Hadith’s claim that it is the lesser jihad. Meanwhile the majority of Muslims use these verses to justify that Islam is a religion of peace and toleration. Each side has its key verses that it proclaims and believes its side to be right. Because it is not possible just to take out of the Qur’an verses used by jihadists to justify their theology, it becomes difficult to try to combat it with any particular policy as an outsider.

Economic Regionalism

While perhaps the least important factor in the clash of civilizations exhibited between the West and al-Qaeda, economics undoubtedly played a role. For years, Bin Laden and his supporters have boycotted American goods.[23] They have also sought to disrupt the West’s economic interests in the region. The West has an interest particularly in Saudi Arabia’s oil. Therefore, when Iraq invaded Kuwait the United States sent soldiers into Saudi Arabia to protect the oil. Saudi Arabia became the near enemy that al-Qaeda sought to defeat. However, in order to defeat the Saudi royal family, which they saw as the puppet government of the United States, they had to defeat the far enemy first, the puppet masters. After defeating the puppet masters, the puppets would have no legs to stand on allowing true Muslims to take over. Bin Laden argued that the United States had been stealing Saudi oil because of the low prices. Oil prices he thought should have been much higher and should never drop below a hundred dollars a barrel. Al-Qaeda therefore began to attack Saudi oil, nearly capturing major oil refineries in the region including the Abqaiq facility in February 2006.[24] Speaking more broadly about Arab states in general, the OPEC economic bloc as it pursues its economic interests tends to conflict with the West, which seeks cheap oil prices, stigmatizing the two sides on occasion. However, to al-Qaeda OPEC is just a puppet of the West.  

            The United States use of sanctions on Muslim countries like Iraq and Iran among others was also seen as a way the Western economic bloc seeks to control the Islamic economic bloc. However, this economic exchange has a particularly harmful effect on the people living in the country who depend upon the goods and services that are typically part of the embargoes.

The attack on the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001 was an attack on a symbol of America’s economy. Bin Laden calculated for every dollar al-Qaeda spent in the September 11 attack translated to 1 million dollars in American economy.[25] The attack by the most conservative calculations cost the United States 500 billion dollars but may have cost the country as much as a trillion dollars when considering the strain it placed on the economy by shutting down Wall Street, structural damages to the buildings and other miscellaneous costs. The costs of the United States conflict in Afghanistan and Iraq is quite high as the United States seeks to bring to justice those responsible for the September 11, 2001 attack.

Al-Qaeda Central to al-Qaeda the Social Movement

Al-Qaeda is a complex organization that itself has its own divisions. Al-Qaeda has went through three movements or waves in its struggle with the House of Unbelief.[26]  The first wave was during the 1980’s when companions of Osama Bin Laden, mostly Afghan Arabs around the age of 30 came together to make up the leadership of al-Qaeda Central. These were well-educated men like doctors and wealthy businessmen, however, they were not religious scholars by any means. Bin Laden called himself a Shiekh (or Islamic scholar); however, he did not have that authority in Islam. Of the first wave, a few dozen are left. The second wave went from the 1990’s to the September 11, 2001 attack. These men were fairly well educated and were trained in Afghanistan to carry out terroristic activity. They were younger with an average age of twenty-five and swore allegiance to Bin Laden making them part of al-Qaeda central. Hundreds in this group remain. Al-Qaeda then endured a transitional faze becoming a social movement following invasion of Iraq, which launched a third wave of Islamic terrorists that continues to the present. These groups had no connection with al-Qaeda Central but acted in al-Qaeda’s name to perform terrorist acts. Al-Qaeda in Iraq is an example of this type of group. Al-Qaeda in Iraq’s induction into al-Qaeda came after the fact. Those in this wave are mostly homegrown terrorist wannabes and represent the next generation of radical Islamic terror with an average age of 20. There are potentially thousands of Muslims in this wave remaining.

The war in Iraq turned metaphorically speaking al-Qaeda from a chicken into a Greek hydra. In other words, before if the United States could have eliminated Bin Laden and the inner circle the group probably would have danced around like a chicken with its head cut off but eventually died but now that al-Qaeda has become a social movement cutting off a head is not going to work any more because of the multiple heads that it has that are unconnected with each other. The only way it would appear now to fight the beast is to stop feeding it (more on this later).

The United States Historic Response to the Clash of Civilizations

Huntington’s Clash of Civilizations model established the main reasons for al-Qaeda’s attack on the United States. Thus far, the issues were presented mostly from the perspective of al-Qaeda. However, in order to get a firm grasp of the clash of civilizations, it is important to analyze the United States response to al-Qaeda. Following the bombings of United States Embassies in 1998, the Clinton administration launched air strikes of al-Qaeda training camps in Afghanistan.[27] They were unable to kill Bin Laden, however, continued to target al-Qaeda camps but never dedicated the resources needed to dismantle the organization. They also put pressure on the Taliban, the ruling party in Afghanistan, to deal with al-Qaeda and claimed that they would be responsible for any future attack by the organization. However, following the attack on the USS Cole in 2000 the Bush administration did not follow through on the threat to the Taliban, in fact they did absolutely nothing but renew the threat of violence on the Taliban.[28] This contributed to a false archetype in the minds of al-Qaeda that the United States was a paper tiger. Al-Qaeda then got bolder. In June, United States intelligence began to warn the Bush administration that an al-Qaeda strike on the United States was imminent. However, this message never communicated with the Bush administration who did not believe that the United States could be attacked on its home soil. The September 11, 2001 attacks came as a complete surprise to the Bush administration. Immediately, after he finished reading “My Pet Goat” to the schoolchildren, Bush began to look for a link to Iraq. Bush had a vendetta to settle with Iraq from the start of his term. One of the first things the Bush administration did in February 2001 was launch air strikes on sites near Baghdad, Iraq. These actions were universally condemned.[29] However, Iraq had no connection to the September 11, 2001 attack so Bush would have to wait to invade Iraq. Instead, the Bush administration invaded Afghanistan on October 7, 2001 until any shred of evidence or conspiracy theory developed that could link Iraq to the attack.

The Bush administration would argue that the reason al-Qaeda attacked the United States was because they “hate our freedom”.[30] However, nothing could be further from the truth. The primary reason for al-Qaeda’s attack on September 11 was due to the United States foreign policy in the Middle East. However, it was easier to convince Americans to fight for freedom than it was to fight for American interests in the Middle East. The mischaracterization of the problem to the American people has allowed the American government to continue its subversive policies in the Middle East in particular its support for Israel.

The Taliban and al-Qaeda were on the run. In December 2001, the United States had al-Qaeda leaders including Bin Laden cornered at Tora Bora.  They began bombing the area using bombs that would destroy the caves in which they were hiding. The problem however was that there was not enough troops on the ground to secure the boarders, particularly with Pakistan. In fact, there were more journalists in the area than military personnel. When al-Qaeda requested a cease-fire before their surrender in the morning, the Afghan troops that were fighting granted the cease-fire and refused to further penetrate into the region.[31] The United States observed the cease-fire for two hours then resumed the air strikes on the region. This was all that al-Qaeda needed to escape into Pakistan. The United States has not been able locate Bin Laden since this opportunity. 

The United States also took measures to try to protect itself from a future terrorist attack by passing the PATRIOT Act in 2001. This act improved the intelligence sharing between government organizations, created a no fly list, improved transportation security and improved intelligence-gathering techniques.[32] However, it is often criticized because it compromises some liberties with regard to communication between peoples and long delays at the airport along with rather personal examinations and limits on what can be brought on the plane. In part because of the PATRIOT Act, several terrorist attempts have been thwarted.  Nevertheless, like all things if someone really wanted to attack the United States there is always the possibility of it being successful no matter how strict the laws.

            In 2003, George W. Bush finally got his wish and the United States invaded Iraq under the heading of the war on terrorism. The reality of the matter is that al-Qaeda wanted to destroy all of the near enemies, the ruling parties in Arab states, including Iraq. Bin Laden and his group wanted to defend Saudi Arabia from an Iraqi attack. The point being, al-Qaeda and Iraq were fierce enemies. Iraq and other state governments could have actually been a close ally in the United States war on terrorism because al-Qaeda was a common enemy. The only connection between al-Qaeda and Iraq was an eight-year-old agreement for Iraq to broadcast the speeches of Salman al-Awdah, a cleric who was critical of the Saudi royal family.[33] These speeches may never have even been broadcasted at all and certainly would not constitute going to war.  The second major reason for the invasion of Iraq was that Saddam Hussein was developing Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD). First, Weapons of Mass Destruction have never been found in Iraq proving definitively that Iraq was not developing WMD technology. Even analyzing the intelligence before the strike from the United Nations, the Central Intelligence Agency, the 9/11 Committee and other sources there was never sufficient evidence to justify the Bush administrations assertions. Second, Iraq simply did not have the technology necessary to launch a WMD strike on the United States. The threat to the United States was not very great even if they had WMD’s. Third, a bad precedent was established that the United States would engage in a pre-emptive strike if it felt its interests were being compromised. The United States took down Saddam Hussein relatively quickly; however, this only incited a civil war in Iraq and allowed al-Qaeda to begin terroristic strikes in Iraq. The Iraq conflict also cost the United State’s war efforts in Afghanistan allowing the Taliban and al-Qaeda to regroup in Kandahar.

            The United States image in the Middle East was further compromised by its use of torture on its enemy combatants at Guantanamo Bay.  In some cases, they turned them over to other countries like Egypt and Libya that used enhanced interrogation techniques.[34] The United States use of water boarding, sleep deprivation, nudity in front of female guards and other means of humiliating and torturing Arabs held in these detention facilities confirmed al-Qaeda’s assertions of the lack of morality in the West. Enemy combatants were not charged or given a trial and were deprived of their human rights under international law. The people detained as enemy combatants came from a variety of sources. American and NATO forces in the region captured some of the enemy combatants but many were captured by other Arab countries who received a financial reward for their capture. They did not even have to provide charge or evidence to sustain a charge to receive the reward. The likelihood of fraud was high under the system that was established.

Where Does the West Go From Here?

            Huntington argued that in order to alleviate a clash of civilizations, a civilization must change from the inside. To do this all of its political and economic elite must be generally supportive of the move, its public must be willing to acquiesce in the redefinition, and the dominant groups in the recipient civilization must be willing to embrace the conversion. Al-Qaeda and other jihadist groups as well as the tyrants that desire to remain in absolute control over their country are opposing Islam’s conversion into a more Western civilization. As long as these forces maintain a level of control there will always be hostility between Islam and the West.

            There are certain things that the West can do to facilitate the liberalization of the Middle East, including ceasing to support the tyrants who are currently ruling in Muslim countries. The United States must allow the people to decide how they want to be ruled be it through Shar’ia or democracy. Overall, America must treat Muslims fairly and consider them as equal to Americans. Muslim noncombatants must be given the same value as American noncombatants.

            The United States must also rethink the use of sanctions that primarily affects the people and not the governments. The people are left to suffer and die in countries with sanctions on them when it was the government that was responsible for the offense. Thousands were killed and even more suffered from starvation and lack of adequate medical care in the United States sanctions on Iraq. There must be a better way of dealing with corrupt governments than punishing the people.

            Most importantly, the United States must rethink its policy with regards to Palestine and its continual support of the Israeli genocide of the Palestinians. Muslims are united in their continual support for their Palestinian brothers. They see the establishment of Israel as an attack on Muslim lands and this provides the most credence to Bin Laden’s argument for a defensive jihad being declared against the Zionist-Crusaders in the West.

            Ultimately, America must improve its image with Muslims and win them over to support its side by making democracy more appealing. The strict adherence to Shar’ia law that al-Qaeda supports, does not appeal to most Muslims. The only reason Muslims have in part supported al-Qaeda’s efforts is due to the detrimental influence the United States and other Western countries have had on the region. Bin Ladenism is a self-defeating ideology and therefore, the best policy might just be to let it run its course. However, unless America redefines itself in the Middle East a new terrorist group will just take its place that might attract a bigger audience and more participants.

            As of now, al-Qaeda is in self-preservation mode. Bin Laden and other leading al-Qaeda members are literally running for their lives and this is delaying a future attack of the magnitude of September 11 from happening. However, issues emerge as to the sustainability of a prolonged war effort in the region. The United States simply cannot afford to continue to occupy Iraq and Afghanistan to seek out and attack al-Qaeda and Taliban members. These groups are going to have to be incorporated into Afghan and Pakistani culture as total annihilation is unattainable and most likely unnecessary.[35]

            Finally, intelligence and record keeping should go a long way at monitoring terrorist groups like al-Qaeda. Knowing how al-Qaeda operates and by disrupting their terroristic plots will have a damaging effect on al-Qaeda. Efforts should also be taken to try to freeze al-Qaeda’s funding and economic capabilities. People who travel to or from known countries where terrorist training camps are located like those in Pakistan or Yemen should be given careful investigation to determine their ties to the region. Along with redefining its foreign policy, intelligence gathering is going to be the United States’ key weapon against terrorist organizations like al-Qaeda in the long-term.

Concluding Remarks

            The events of September 11, 2001 were the climax of an age-old clash of civilizations between the West and Islam. Each side has grievances against the other, some that can be substantiated and others that cannot. Each has come out of a particular culture and has a very particular worldview by which they interpret history. In al-Qaeda, this was the notion of the archetype and a specific interpretation of the Qur’an. These differing civilizations have come into closer contact with one another through different foreign policy decisions implemented by the West, the most important of which is the support for the state of Israel. The West brought with them new ideas that conflict with longstanding customs and traditions; this has created division in Islam as to how far to accept these new ideas. Those who reject these new ideas and want to return to the foundations of Islam like al-Qaeda’s pursuit to recreate Islam. The United States has been firm in its position, however, in Islam there has been some fragmentation between the radicals and the liberals. Economics has also played a key role in the conflict between the United States and Islam particularly with regard to oil.

            The United States response to the September 11 attack was to invade Afghanistan and later Iraq. Domestically the United States passed the PATROT Act, which improved intelligence between government organizations but at the cost of liberty. Al-Qaeda is on the run and the attack had the exact opposite effect they were hoping for, placing more Americans in Arab states and overthrowing their safe haven in Afghanistan. However, the United States use of torture at Guantanamo Bay and turning enemy combatants over to other countries that practiced enhanced interrogations techniques had a harmful effect of America’s image in the Middle East. The United States must begin to reform its image in the Middle East by allowing the Muslim people their rights to self-determination, recognize that Muslims are equal to Americans, and truly stand for the principles it claims to represent. Intelligence must also be stepped up in the Middle East and other regions subject to terrorist organizations.

            In Christianity, we have a golden rule that calls people to “do to others what you would have them do to you” (Matthew 7:12, NIV). American’s would not like it if Arabs took over some of America’s land, had a sustained military presence in another region, plundered America’s natural resources and overall attempted to push their ideology upon the United States. The September 11 attack humbled America and gave it a taste of its own medicine. However, this does not excuse the September 11 attack either. Evil cannot be returned with evil, especially in an attack on noncombatants. Neither side’s actions in this enduring clash of civilizations are excusable. Al-Qaeda will not compromise its demands, the question facing the United States is how much can it afford to pay to defend its interests in the Middle East and how much can the United States afford to give up in the Middle East.

The people in Egypt and Tunisia were able to take control of their countries by overthrowing the tyrants in their country and several other countries have attempted to do the same. True democracy in these countries will lessen the appeal of al-Qaeda and stand opposed to their theory that these states are puppets of the United States. However, with the rise of democracy is the rise of uncertainty as to who will assume control in the country and how receptive they will be to the United States. Nevertheless, it is these internal movements that could put the biggest long-term dent in al-Qaeda and other radical Islamist groups.  

Bibliography

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Combs, Cindy. “Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century.” Boston: Pearson Education, INC. 2011

Esposito, John. “Unholy War, Terror in the Name of Islam.” New York: Oxford University Press.2002.

Gerges, Fawaz. “Journey of the Jihadist, Inside Muslim Militancy” Orlando: A Harvest Book Harcourt, INC. 2007.

Goldschmidt, Arthur Jr. “A Concise History of the Middle East.” Colorado. Westview Press. 2010.

Habeck, Mary. “Knowing the Enemy, Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror” Yale University Press. 2007.

Huntington, Samuel P. “The Clash of Civilizations?” Foreign Affairs. Council on Foreign Relations. 1993

Lawrence, Bruce. “Messages to the World, The Statements of Osama Bin Laden.” New York: Verso. 2005.

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[1] Huntington, Samuel P. “The Clash of Civilizations?” Foreign Affairs. Council on Foreign Relations. 1993

[2] Habeck, Mary. “Knowing the Enemy, Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror” Yale University Press. 2007 (pg. 49)

[3] Lawrence, Bruce. “Messages to the World, The Statements of Osama Bin Laden.” New York: Verso. 2005. (pg. 139-144)

[4] Bergen, Peter. “The Longest War, The Enduring Conflict Between America and Al-Qaeda” New York: Free Press. 2011. (pg. 347)

[5] Krygsman, Herbert. “History of the Muslim World.”Sioux Center. Dordt College. Spring 2010.

[6] Habeck, Mary. “Knowing the Enemy, Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror” Yale University Press. 2007 (pg. 108-122)

[7] Habeck, Mary. “Knowing the Enemy, Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror” Yale University Press. 2007 (pg. 20)

[8] Habeck, Mary. “Knowing the Enemy, Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror” Yale University Press. 2007 (pg. 22)

[9] Habeck, Mary. “Knowing the Enemy, Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror” Yale University Press. 2007 (pg. 27-29)

[10] Habeck, Mary. “Knowing the Enemy, Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror” Yale University Press. 2007 (pg. 27-42)

[11] Habeck, Mary. “Knowing the Enemy, Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror” Yale University Press. 2007 (pg. 35-42)

[12] Habeck, Mary. “Knowing the Enemy, Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror” Yale University Press. 2007 (pg. 36-42)

[13] Lawrence, Bruce. “Messages to the World, The Statements of Osama Bin Laden.” New York: Verso. 2005. (pg. 160-171)

[14] Habeck, Mary. “Knowing the Enemy, Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror” Yale University Press. 2007 (pg 19-23)

[15] Lawrence, Bruce. “Messages to the World, The Statements of Osama Bin Laden.” New York: Verso. 2005 (pg. 15-19, 37)

[16] Lawrence, Bruce. “Messages to the World, The Statements of Osama Bin Laden.” New York: Verso. 2005 (pg. 239-240)

[17] Sageman, Marc. “Leaderless Jihad, Terror Networks in the Twenty-first Century”. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 2008 (pg 71-108)

[18] Goldschmidt, Arthur Jr. “A Concise History of the Middle East.” Colorado. Westview Press. 2010. (pg. 418)

[19] Goldschmidt, Arthur Jr. “A Concise History of the Middle East.” Colorado. Westview Press. 2010. (pg. 432-433)

[20] Habeck, Mary. “Knowing the Enemy, Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror” Yale University Press. 2007 (pg. 49-51)

[21] Bergen, Peter. “The Longest War, The Enduring Conflict Between America and Al-Qaeda” New York: Free Press. 2011. (pg. 298-302)

[22] Habeck, Mary. “Knowing the Enemy, Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror” Yale University Press. 2007 (pg. 44)

[23] Lawrence, Bruce. “Messages to the World, The Statements of Osama Bin Laden.” New York: Verso. 2005 (pg. 29)

[24] Bergen, Peter. “The Longest War, The Enduring Conflict Between America and Al-Qaeda” New York: Free Press. 2011. (pg. 336)

[25] Lawrence, Bruce. “Messages to the World, The Statements of Osama Bin Laden.” New York: Verso. 2005 (pg. 111-113)

[26] Sageman, Marc. “Leaderless Jihad, Terror Networks in the Twenty-first Century”. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 2008 (pg 125-146)

[27] Bergen, Peter. “The Longest War, The Enduring Conflict Between America and Al-Qaeda” New York: Free Press. 2011 (pg. 46-47)

[28] Bergen, Peter. “The Longest War, The Enduring Conflict Between America and Al-Qaeda” New York: Free Press. 2011.(45-47)

[29] Lawrence, Bruce. “Messages to the World, The Statements of Osama Bin Laden.” New York: Verso. 2005 (pg. 149)

[30] Lawrence, Bruce. “Messages to the World, The Statements of Osama Bin Laden.” New York: Verso. 2005 (pg. 239)

[31] Bergen, Peter. “The Longest War, The Enduring Conflict Between America and Al-Qaeda” New York: Free Press. 2011.(pg. 77-79)

[32] Bergen, Peter. “The Longest War, The Enduring Conflict Between America and Al-Qaeda” New York: Free Press. 2011. (pg. 245)

[33] Bergen, Peter. “The Longest War, The Enduring Conflict Between America and Al-Qaeda” New York: Free Press. 2011. (pg. 152)

[34] Bergen, Peter. “The Longest War, The Enduring Conflict Between America and Al-Qaeda” New York: Free Press. 2011. (pg. 98-107)

[35] Bergen, Peter. “The Longest War, The Enduring Conflict Between America and Al-Qaeda” New York: Free Press. 2011. (pg. 309-334)